Flap T/D ↑

When T or D sounds like a quick tap

What is it?

In American English, T and D often become a quick flap sound [ɾ] — like a very fast D, or the "tt" in Spanish "gato".

This is why "butter" and "budder" sound the same, and "writer" and "rider" are nearly identical.

When does it happen?

Flapping occurs when T or D is:

• After a vowel or R
• Before an unstressed vowel or syllabic L

Examples

T between vowels

T after R

T before syllabic L

D also flaps

Homophones

Because of flapping, these word pairs sound identical:

Exceptions

• Before stressed vowels: atomic, attack, guitar — no flap because stress follows
• After N: button, kitten, mountain — uses glottal stop instead
• Word-initial T: top, time, table — always full T
• Careful/formal speech: Some speakers avoid flapping in formal contexts

Cross-word flapping

Flapping also happens between words in connected speech. When a word ends in T and the next word starts with a vowel, they link together with a flap.

Common phrases

Glottal Stop + Syllabic N ↑

When T becomes a catch in your throat

What is it?

In words like button and kitten, the T becomes a glottal stop [ʔ] — a brief catch in your throat, like the sound in "uh-oh".

The schwa vowel is also dropped, making the N syllabic — it forms its own syllable without a vowel.

When does it happen?

This pattern occurs when:

• T comes after a vowel (or R)
• T is followed by unstressed -en or -on

Examples

Common -ton/-ten words

Longer words

How to pronounce it

1. Say the first part of the word normally ("but-")
2. Stop your airflow briefly in your throat (like holding your breath)
3. Release directly into N — no vowel between the glottal stop and N

Related rules

• Syllabic N — N forming its own syllable (garden, sudden)
• Syllabic L — L forming its own syllable (bottle, little)
• Flap T/D — T becoming a tap (butter, water)

Glottal T (Word-Final) ↑

When T becomes a glottal stop before consonants

What is it?

When a word ends in T (not in a cluster), it often becomes a glottal stop [ʔ] before a consonant. A glottal stop is made by briefly closing your throat.

When does it happen?

Glottal T occurs when:

• Word ends in T — not in a cluster like -st, -nt
• Next word starts with consonant — not a vowel
• In casual speech — very common in American English

Examples

Exceptions

• Before vowels: "that is" → T becomes flap, not glottal stop
• In clusters: "just say" → T is deleted (see Final T/D Elision)
• Careful speech: In formal contexts, T may be fully pronounced

Related rules

• Glottal Stop + Syllabic N — T becomes glottal before N within words
• Final T/D Elision — T deleted in clusters like -st, -nd
• Flap T/D — T between vowels becomes a flap

Palatalization ↑

When "got you" becomes "gotcha"

What is it?

When T or D meets the Y sound in "you/your/yet", they merge into a new sound:

• T + Y → CH [ʧ] (gotcha)
• D + Y → J [ʤ] (didja)

When does it happen?

Palatalization occurs when:

• Word ends in T or D
• Next word starts with /j/ — usually "you", "your", "yet"
• In casual/fast speech — very common in everyday conversation

Examples

T + Y → CH [ʧ]

D + Y → J [ʤ]

Optional: S/Z + Y (fast speech only)

In very fast, casual speech, S and Z can also merge with Y. This is less common and more subtle than T/D palatalization.

S + Y → SH [ʃ] (optional)

Z + Y → ZH [ʒ] (optional)

Exceptions

• Careful/formal speech: Speakers may pronounce T/D and Y separately
• Slow speech: When speaking deliberately, the sounds stay distinct
• Emphasis: "Did YOU do it?" keeps the sounds separate

Related rules

• Flap T/D — another T/D sound change
• Glottal Stop + Syllabic N — T changes before N

-ING Reduction ↑

When -ing becomes -in'

What is it?

In casual American English, the -ing ending is often pronounced as -in [ɪn] instead of [ɪŋ]. The "g" sound drops and the nasal changes from velar (back of mouth) to alveolar (front).

This is sometimes written as goin' or runnin' in informal writing.

When does it happen?

-ING reduction is common in:

• Casual conversation — everyday speech between friends
• Fast speech — when speaking quickly
• Regional dialects — more common in some regions

Examples

Common verbs

Common phrases

Important distinction

Don't confuse -ing words with words that end in -ing as part of the root:

• sing, ring, king — these don't reduce (they're not the -ing suffix)
• singing, ringing — these CAN reduce ("singin'", "ringin'")

Related rules

• Schwa Deletion — dropping unstressed vowels (comfortable, chocolate)
• NT Cluster Reduction — T dropping after N (twenty, internet)

TH to N Assimilation ↑

When "in the" becomes "in-nuh"

What is it?

When "the" follows a word ending in /n/, the TH sound often assimilates (changes) to match the N, becoming another [n] sound.

This creates a smooth double-N sound: "in the" → "in-nuh".

When does it happen?

TH-to-N assimilation occurs when:

• Word ends in /n/ — in, on, an, been, when, then, etc.
• Followed by "the" — the most common word in English
• In fast/casual speech — very common in everyday conversation

Examples

Exceptions

• Careful/formal speech: TH may be pronounced distinctly
• Emphasis: "in THE box, not on it" — TH pronounced for contrast
• Slow speech: When speaking deliberately, sounds stay separate

Related rules

• TH-Dropping in "them" — TH deleted entirely in "them"
• H-Dropping — similar reduction in function words

V Elision in "of" ↑

When "of" loses its V sound

What is it?

In connected speech, the word "of" often reduces from /ʌv/ or /əv/ to just /ə/, completely dropping the /v/ sound. This is one of the most common reductions in English.

This is why "kind of" sounds like "kinda" and "sort of" sounds like "sorta".

When does it happen?

V elision in "of" occurs:

• In connected speech — when "of" follows another word without pause
• When unstressed — the word "of" is almost always unstressed

Examples

Common phrases

With cross-word flapping

When the word before "of" ends in T or D, you get flapping too:

Exceptions

• Stressed/emphasized: "I said OF, not OFF" — V is pronounced when stressed
• Careful speech: In formal contexts, the V may be retained

Informal spellings

These reductions are often written informally:

• kinda = kind of
• sorta = sort of
• lotta = lot of
• outta = out of

Related rules

• Flap T/D — often combines with V elision (lot of, sort of)
• Schwa Deletion — similar vowel reduction pattern

H-Dropping ↑

When H disappears in pronouns

What is it?

In connected speech, the /h/ sound is often dropped from unstressed pronouns and auxiliaries: him, her, his, he, has, have, had.

This is why "tell him" sounds like "tell im" and "give her" sounds like "give er".

When does it happen?

H-dropping occurs when:

• Word is unstressed — not emphasized in the sentence
• Not sentence-initial — "He said..." keeps the /h/

Examples

Pronouns: him, her, his, he

Auxiliaries: have, has, had

Exceptions

• Sentence-initial: "He said..." — H is pronounced at the start of a sentence
• Emphatic: "Tell HIM, not her!" — H is pronounced when stressed for emphasis
• Careful speech: In formal contexts, speakers may retain the /h/

Related rules

• TH-Dropping in "them" — similar pattern with "them" → "'em"
• V Elision in "of" — another common function word reduction

TH-Dropping in "them" ↑

When "them" becomes "'em"

What is it?

In casual speech, "them" loses its /ð/ sound and becomes "'em" [əm]. This is extremely common in everyday conversation.

This is why "tell them" sounds like "tell 'em" and "give them" sounds like "give 'em".

When does it happen?

TH-dropping in "them" occurs when:

• Word is unstressed — part of the natural flow of speech
• In casual/fast speech — very common in everyday conversation

Examples

Exceptions

• Emphatic: "Tell THEM, not us!" — TH is pronounced when stressed
• Careful speech: In formal contexts, speakers may retain the /ð/

Related rules

• H-Dropping — similar pattern with him/her/his → 'im/'er/'is
• Flap T/D — applies after TH is deleted in "get them", "let them"

Final T/D Elision ↑

When T or D drops in consonant clusters

What is it?

When T or D is part of a consonant cluster (like -st, -nd, -ld) at the end of a word, it often drops completely before a word starting with a consonant.

When does it happen?

T/D elision occurs when:

• T/D is in a cluster — st, nd, ld, ft, kt, etc.
• Next word starts with consonant — not a vowel
• In casual/connected speech — very common in everyday conversation

Examples

Exceptions

• Before vowels: "just a" keeps the T (or it becomes a flap)
• Careful speech: In formal contexts, the T/D may be pronounced
• Emphasis: "I JUST said that!" — T pronounced for emphasis

Related rules

• Glottal T — single T becomes glottal stop (not deleted)
• Flap T/D — T/D between vowels becomes a flap

NT Cluster Reduction ↑

When T disappears after N

What is it?

In fast, connected American English speech, when T appears after N and before an unstressed vowel, the T is often dropped entirely. You just hear the N sound.

This makes "twenty" sound like "twenny" and "internet" sound like "innernet".

When does it happen?

NT reduction occurs in casual, fast speech when:

• T comes after N
• T is followed by an unstressed vowel

Examples

Numbers

Common words

-nt- in the middle

Exceptions

• Before stressed vowels: contain, entail, intent — T is pronounced
• Formal/careful speech: In formal contexts, the T is usually pronounced clearly

Related rules

• Flap T/D — T becoming a tap between vowels (butter, water)
• Glottal Stop + Syllabic N — button, kitten pattern

Schwa Deletion ↑

When unstressed vowels disappear

What is it?

In natural speech, unstressed schwa vowels [ə] are often dropped entirely, reducing the number of syllables in a word.

"Comfortable" (4 syllables) becomes "comf-ter-bl" (3 syllables) in casual speech.

When does it happen?

Schwa deletion is common when:

• The schwa is in an unstressed syllable
• The surrounding consonants can be pronounced together
• Speaking at normal or fast speed

Examples

Common reductions

More examples

Related rules

• Syllabic L — L forming its own syllable (bottle, little)
• Syllabic N — N forming its own syllable (garden, sudden)

Consonant Gemination ↑

When identical consonants meet at word boundaries

What is it?

When a word ends with the same consonant that the next word begins with, speakers don't pronounce the sound twice. Instead, the consonants merge — but how they merge depends on the type of consonant.

This is why "some money" sounds like "suh money" — the two /m/ sounds become one longer /m/.

Three types of consonants

1. Continuous consonants — Lengthening

Fricatives (/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ/), nasals (/m, n, ŋ/), and liquids (/l, r/) can be held continuously. When they meet, the sound is lengthened — pronounced once, but for a longer time.

2. Stops — Hold and release

Stops (/p, b, t, d, k, g/) cannot be held continuously because they completely block airflow. When they meet, the first stop is held, then released into the second. This creates a brief pause.

3. Affricates — Pronounced twice

Affricates (/ʧ, ʤ/) are pronounced twice without merging.

Related rules

• Flap T/D — when T/D becomes a quick tap between vowels
• Glottal Stop — when T becomes a glottal stop before N

Glide Insertion ↑

When [w] or [j] links words together

What is it?

When a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word starting with a vowel, English speakers naturally insert a glide sound to link them:

• After rounded vowels (/uː/, /oʊ/, /aʊ/) → insert [w]
• After front vowels (/iː/, /eɪ/, /aɪ/) → insert [j]

When does it happen?

Glide insertion occurs when:

• Word ends in a vowel — especially /iː/, /eɪ/, /aɪ/, /oʊ/, /uː/, /aʊ/
• Next word starts with a vowel
• In connected speech — words flow together naturally

Examples

[w] after rounded vowels

[j] after front vowels

Exceptions

• Slow/careful speech: Speakers may pause between words instead of linking
• After schwa: No glide is typically inserted after /ə/

Related rules

• Flap T/D — another way words connect in American English

Syllabic N ↑

When N forms its own syllable

What is it?

In casual American English, when -en or -on follows certain consonants, the schwa vowel is dropped and N becomes syllabic [n̩] — it forms its own syllable without a vowel before it.

The small line under the N [n̩] indicates it's syllabic.

When does it happen?

Syllabic N commonly occurs after:

• D — sudden, garden, hidden
• T — button, kitten (with glottal stop)
• Z/S — reason, prison, listen

Examples

After D

After S/Z

After T (with glottal stop)

See Glottal Stop + Syllabic N for more on the T + syllabic N pattern.

Related rules

• Glottal Stop + Syllabic N — button, kitten pattern
• Syllabic L — L forming its own syllable (bottle, little)
• Schwa Deletion — dropping unstressed vowels

Syllabic L ↑

When L forms its own syllable

What is it?

In words ending with -le or -al, the schwa vowel is often dropped and L becomes syllabic [l̩] — it forms its own syllable without a vowel before it.

The small line under the L [l̩] indicates it's syllabic. Note that the T also becomes a flap in this word.

When does it happen?

Syllabic L occurs in words ending with:

• -tle — bottle, little, battle
• -dle — middle, puddle, handle
• -ble — table, able, bubble
• -ple — apple, simple, people
• -al — final, normal, mental

Examples

-tle words

-dle words

-ble/-ple words

Related rules

• Syllabic N — N forming its own syllable (garden, sudden)
• Flap T/D — T becoming a tap before syllabic L (bottle, little)
• Schwa Deletion — dropping unstressed vowels (comfortable)